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(a) Why is Krumbein’s logarithmic transformation necessary? Grain size data are not normally distributed but are skewed. Krumbein introduced the phi (φ) scale to convert grain size into a logarithmic form. φ = −log₂ (grain diameter in mm). This transformation simplifies statistical analysis of sediments. It helps in easy comparison of grain size parameters like mean, sorting, skewness, and kurtosis.

(b) How are sediments transported by rivers?

Sediments are transported by rivers in four

Processes of Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed by a series of interrelated processes operating at or near the Earth’s surface. These processes can be broadly divided into five main stages:

1. Weathering

Weathering is the breakdown of pre-existing rocks at the Earth’s surface by physical, chemical, and biological processes.

Physical weathering disintegrates rocks without changing composition.

Chemical weathering alters minerals through reactions such as oxidation, hydration,

distillation:-Distillation is a process by which a liquid mixture is separated into fractions with higher concentrations of certain components by exploiting differences in relative volatility Distillation is a separation process used to separate components of a liquid mixture based on differences in their boiling points. The process involves heating the mixture to vaporize the most volatile component(s), followed by cooling the vapor to condense it back into liquid form, thereby isolating the different

1. What is Reynold's number? Give its importance. Reynold's number is a dimensionless number used to predict flow patterns in fluid dynamics. It is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. A low Reynold's number indicates laminar flow, while a high number indicates turbulent flow. It helps in designing and analyzing fluid flow systems.

2. What are heat exchangers? Give their types. Heat exchangers are devices used to transfer heat between two or more fluids without mixing them. Types include

• Provinces: BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS, PEI, NL

• Territories: YT, NT, NU

  • Capital of Canada: Ottawa

• ON – Toronto

• QC – Québec City

• BC – Victoria

• AB – Edmonton

• MB – Winnipeg

• SK – Regina

• NS – Halifax

• NB – Fredericton

• PEI – Charlottetown

• NL – St. John’s

• Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic Oceans

• Hudson Bay

• Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior)

• St. Lawrence River

• Gulf of St. Lawrence

           Oldest Geological Era: Precambrian