Living organisms are made up of thousands of biomolecules—molecules produced by living systems with distinct properties and functions favored through evolution. Small, simple molecules called micromolecules (or monomers), such as water, minerals, simple sugars, and nucleotides, serve as building blocks for larger macromolecules (or polymers) like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Biomolecules are classified into inorganic types (e.g., water, minerals, gases) and organic types
Definition:
DNA replication is the process of producing two identical copies of DNA from one original DNA molecule. It is bidirectional and semiconservative—each daughter DNA contains one parental (old) strand and one new strand.
Unwinding of DNA:Hydrogen bonds between base pairs break.
Two antiparallel strands separate, starting at the origin of replication.
Enzyme Helicase unwinds DNA, forming a replication fork.
Nucleotide Activation: Deoxyribonucleotides
A spherical organ (~2.3 cm) that allows us to perceive light, color, and depth.
Key Parts:
Sclera: Outer white protective layer.
Cornea: Transparent front part that allows light entry.
Iris: Colored muscular part controlling pupil size.
Pupil: Opening through which light enters.
Lens: Flexible structure that focuses light onto the retina.
Retina: Light-sensitive layer converting light to electrical impulses.
Cones: Detect bright light and color.
Rods:
3D bioprinting is an advanced form of additive manufacturing that uses cells and biomaterials instead of plastic or metal to print organ-like structures layer by layer. It holds great promise for regenerative medicine, drug discovery, and wound healing.
Pre-bioprinting – Creating a digital blueprint (often from CT/MRI scans) and preparing cell-loaded bioinks.
Bioprinting – Printing the structure using bioinks and multiple printheads
1. Graphs
• Graph (G): A pair (V, E) where V is a set of vertices and E is a set of edges connecting pairs of vertices.
• Types:
o Simple Graph: No loops or multiple edges.
o Multigraph: Multiple edges allowed.
o Directed Graph (Digraph): Edges have directions.
o Weighted Graph: Edges have weights.
🔹 2. Subgraphs
• Subgraph: A graph H is a subgraph of G if V(H) ⊆ V(G) and E(H) ⊆ E(G).
• Induced Subgraph: Formed by a subset of vertices and all edges between them in G.
🔹 3. Basic
BIOMINING
One of the smallest representatives of life forms, BACTERIA, can be seen as a mixed blessing. They cause diseases to plants and animals even to human beings such as tuberculosis and leprosy on one side and they also convert milk into curd. In last couple of decades, we have identified bacteria as miners. These diminutive diggers have become assets to the mining industry eliminating traditional offensive methods which use explosives, toxic chemicals, and high temperatures (Science, Vol
SINGLY LINKED LIST
// Insert at beginning 0
Algorithm InsertAtBeginning(data):1. newNode = (Node*)malloc(sizeof(Node))2. newNode->data = data3. newNode->next = head4. head = newNode
// Insert at endAlgorithm InsertAtEnd(data):1. newNode = (Node*)malloc(sizeof(Node))2. newNode->data = data3. newNode->next = NULL4. If head == NULL:
head = newNodeElse:temp = headWhile temp->next != NULL:temp = temp->nexttemp->next = newNode;
// Insert at position Algorithm InsertAtPos(data, pos)
Data Analytics Life Cycle in Big Data
1. Discovery : Goal: Understand the problem and define objectives. Identify business challenges. Determine project scope and potential value. Assess available resources (data, tools, skills). Understand data sources and feasibility. Example: A retail company wants to improve sales forecasting using big data analytics.2. Data Preparation: Goal: Collect, clean, and organize the data. Gather data from various sources (structured, semi-structured, unstructured).
Ans. The following steps are involved in the construction of recombinant DNA(i) Preparation of gene. Gene cloning in bacteria is achieved by cleaving DNA with the enzyme restriction endonucleases. It makes small fragments. Each fragment has a sticky end. Eukaryotic genes contain introns that are not processed. In bacteria, DNA for cloning is usually obtained from relevant mRNA by the process of reverse transcription. In cases where nucleotide or amino acid sequences are known, synthetic DNA may