Iris Marion Young was a prominent political philosopher whose critical thinking significantly influenced contemporary debates on justice, democracy, and social oppression. Her work is marked by a sustained critique of traditional liberal political theory and an emphasis on structural injustice and the lived experiences of marginalized groups.==A central aspect of Young’s critical thinking is her rejection of ideal theory, particularly theories of justice that focus only on abstract principles

Functional Dependency:- In DBMS, a functional dependency is a relationship between two sets of attributes in a relation. It shows how one attribute or a set of attributes uniquely determines another attribute. It is written as X → Y, which means attribute X determines attribute Y. Functional dependency is the basic concept used in normalization to reduce redundancy and maintain data consistency.

Types of Functional Dependency

1. Trivial Functional Dependency:- A functional dependency is called

Q1. Why is political inquiry important in social science research? Discuss the role of interpretation in political analysis.

Political inquiry occupies a central position within social science research as it seeks to systematically study power, authority, institutions, political behaviour, and decision-making processes that shape social life. Unlike common-sense explanations or ideological assertions, political inquiry relies on methodical investigation, theoretical frameworks, and empirical or

Here is the translation of your text regarding Sovereignty into English:
Meaning of Sovereignty
Sovereignty refers to the supreme and ultimate power of a State, by which it possesses the complete right to create, implement, and adjudicate laws within its territory without any external interference. It is one of the essential elements of a State; without it, the concept of a State is not possible.
 * Absolute Authority: The supreme and indivisible authority of a ruler or government over a state or

In political science, understanding the boundaries and functions of the State is essential, as the term is often colloquially confused with "government," "society," or "nation."
1. Functions of the State
The modern state serves two primary categories of functions: Essential (Compulsory) and Welfare (Optional).
Essential Functions
These are required for the very survival and identity of the state:
 * Protection of Sovereignty: Maintaining a military to defend borders from foreign invasion.
 * Maintenance

Topic Overview: Sovereignty
To help you with your studies for Unit IV, here is a brief breakdown of what this topic typically covers:
1. Meaning
Sovereignty is the supreme power or authority of a state. It means that within its own territory, the state has the final say in making laws and decisions, and it is free from external control by other nations.
2. Main Characteristics
 * Absoluteness: There is no power higher than the sovereign state.
 * Permanence: Sovereignty lasts as long as the state exists;

Ch 12 cost of production

• Total Cost = FC + VC  • Marginal Cost = ΔTC /ΔQ OR ΔVC /ΔQ 

• Average fixed cost (AFC) = Fixed cost /Quantity  • Average variable cost (AVC) = Variable cost/ Quantity • Average total cost (ATC) = Total costs /Quantity = AFC + AVC

Accounting profit = Total revenue – Explicit costs

Economic profit = TR – Explicit costs – Implicit costs  . Economic profit = Accounting profit – Implicit costs 

Explicit (directly require company to spend money . Implicit

Unit-- 1

Information Representation

Information representation is the method used by computers to store, process, and transmit data in a form that can be understood by electronic systems. Since computers are digital devices, all information such as numbers, characters, images, and instructions is represented internally using binary digits (0 and 1). These binary values correspond to electrical signals like ON and OFF. Different coding techniques are used to represent various types of information