The basic structure of a Java program is based on the concept of classes. Every executable Java program must contain at least one class definition.
💻 Essential Structure of a Java Program
A typical Java application will have the following hierarchical structure: 1. Package Statement (Optional)
The very first statement in a Java source file (if present) is the package statement. It organizes classes into logical groups, preventing naming conflicts.
 * Syntax: package package_name;
 * Example: package

Chapter 2:

Counter Claim Section 66(1) – Sessions Court: Can hear the case even if the counterclaim is bigger than the plaintiff’s claim, but cannot award more than its own limit (e.g., max RM1 million).

Section 66(2) – High court: Any party can apply to move the whole case to the High Court, which has no monetary limit.

Issue: Claim = Principal (within limit) + Interest (pushes total over limit)

Foo Sey Koh v Chua Seng Seng (1986): Only count interest up to the date of filing (not after

Chapter 5: Synchronization

Critical Section Conditions

• Mutual Exclusion: Only one process in CS at a time.
• Progress: If CS empty, some waiting process can enter.
• Bounded Waiting: No starvation; each process waits a bounded number of turns.

Atomic Instructions

• TestAndSet: old = *b; *b = TRUE; return old
• Swap: temp = *a; *a = *b; *b = temp

Spinlocks

• TAS:

  bool m=false;
  lock(){ while(TestAndSet(&m)); }
  unlock(){ m=false; }
  

• Swap:

  bool m=false;
  lock(){ bool key=true; while(key) Swap(&m,

0

1️⃣ Carbohydrates

Definition:

Optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds that yield them on hydrolysis.

General Formula: Cₓ(H₂O)ᵧ
Name origin: “Carbo” = carbon, “hydrate” = water.

Reducing

1. Game Engine Architecture (with Diagram)

A game engine is software that helps create and run games by managing graphics, audio, input, and logic.
Main parts:

Graphics Engine: Renders images and animations using GPU.

Audio Engine: Manages music and sound effects.

Input Module: Handles input from keyboard, mouse, and gamepads.

Device APIs/DLLs: Connects engine to hardware.
Game Logic & Main Loop: Controls gameplay and timing.

2. Resources and File System

Resources are external data like images,

CHAPTER 11 – UNEMPLOYMENT & LABOR MARKETS

BLS Household Survey

• 60,000 households monthly

• Population: 333,287,557

  • Age 17+: 269,523,012

  • Children: 63,764,545

  • Civilian Noninstitutional Population: 263,973,000

  • Labor Force: 164,287,000

    • Employed: 158,291,000

    • Unemployed: 5,996,000

    • Not in Labor Force: 99,686,000

Key Formulas:

• Unemployment Rate (UR) = (Unemployed / Labor Force) × 100 → 3.7%

• Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) = (Labor Force / Civilian Noninstitutional