1. Structural Functionalism

(Macro-level theory)

Key Thinkers: Émile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, Herbert Spencer

• Society is a stable and orderly system
  
  
• Different parts of society function like organs of a body
  
  
• Each institution performs a useful function for social stability
  
  
• Emphasizes social order, equilibrium, and cohesion
  
  
• Change occurs slowly through adaptation
  
  

Example:

Family socializes children, education prepares workforce, religion creates moral unity

2. Conflict Theory

(Macro-level theory)

1. Explain the meaning of a Research Problem and its sources.

Answer:
A research problem is a clear, specific, and well-defined issue or question that a researcher intends to study systematically. It represents a gap between the existing state of knowledge and the desired state, which requires investigation. A well-formulated research problem provides direction to the entire research process and helps in deciding objectives, methodology, and data collection techniques.

The sources of a research problem

Brain tumors – increased intracranial pressure (ICP).The skull is a rigid compartment; any added volume (tumor, blood, edema, CSF) raises ICP. ICP > 20 mmHg (normal < 15). CPP = MAP − ICP → rising ICP reduces CPP and causes cerebral ischemia.Causes: intracranial mass (tumor, hematoma, large infarct), cerebral edema, hydrocephalus/CSF obstruction, venous sinus thrombosis, infection, trauma, toxic or idiopathic intracranial hypertension.Pathogenesis: early compensation by displacement

Phylum Echinodermata (from Greek echinos = spiny; derma = skin) consists of exclusively marine animals known for their pentamerous radial symmetry and unique water-driven skeletal systems.
1. General Characters
 * Habitat: Entirely marine; found at all depths from the intertidal zone to the deep sea.
 * Symmetry: Adults exhibit pentamerous radial symmetry (body parts arranged in fives), while larvae are bilaterally symmetrical.
 * Body Organization: Triploblastic, coelomate, and exhibit an organ-

Phylum Arthropoda is the largest phylum in the animal kingdom, comprising more than 80% of all known species. Their hallmark is the presence of jointed appendages and a chitinous exoskeleton.
1. General Characters of Phylum Arthropoda
 * Level of Organization: Organ-system level.
 * Symmetry and Germ Layers: Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, and metamerically segmented.
 * Exoskeleton: A hard outer covering made of chitin, which provides protection and is periodically shed through a process

Phylum Coelenterata (also known as Cnidaria) consists of about 10,000 species of simple, aquatic animals. The name "Coelenterata" refers to their single central body cavity (the coelenteron), while "Cnidaria" refers to their specialized stinging cells.
1. General Characters
 * Habitat: Primarily marine (e.g., Corals, Jellyfish), with a few freshwater forms like Hydra.
 * Level of Organization: They exhibit a tissue grade of organization.
 * Germ Layers: They are diploblastic, meaning the body wall

Phylum Protozoa represents the most primitive group of animals, consisting of microscopic, unicellular organisms. Below is an overview of their general characteristics, classification, and a detailed look at the malaria parasite, Plasmodium.
1. General Characters of Phylum Protozoa
 * Habit and Habitat: Mostly aquatic (freshwater or marine), but can also be found in damp soil. Many are commensals or parasites.
 * Body Organization: Unicellular or acellular; they exhibit a protoplasmic grade of organization