Definition:
DNA replication is the process of producing two identical copies of DNA from one original DNA molecule. It is bidirectional and semiconservative—each daughter DNA contains one parental (old) strand and one new strand.

Steps of DNA Replication:

1. Unwinding of DNA:Hydrogen bonds between base pairs break.

   • Two antiparallel strands separate, starting at the origin of replication.

   • Enzyme Helicase unwinds DNA, forming a replication fork.

2. Nucleotide Activation: Deoxyribonucleotides

3D Bioprinting

3D bioprinting is an advanced form of additive manufacturing that uses cells and biomaterials instead of plastic or metal to print organ-like structures layer by layer. It holds great promise for regenerative medicine, drug discovery, and wound healing.

How Bioprinting Works (Three Key Steps):

1. Pre-bioprinting – Creating a digital blueprint (often from CT/MRI scans) and preparing cell-loaded bioinks.

2. Bioprinting – Printing the structure using bioinks and multiple printheads

1. Graphs

• Graph (G): A pair (V, E) where V is a set of vertices and E is a set of edges connecting pairs of vertices.

• Types:

o Simple Graph: No loops or multiple edges.

o Multigraph: Multiple edges allowed.

o Directed Graph (Digraph): Edges have directions.

o Weighted Graph: Edges have weights.

🔹 2. Subgraphs

• Subgraph: A graph H is a subgraph of G if V(H) ⊆ V(G) and E(H) ⊆ E(G).

• Induced Subgraph: Formed by a subset of vertices and all edges between them in G.

🔹 3. Basic

BIOMINING

One of the smallest representatives of life forms, BACTERIA, can be seen as a mixed blessing. They cause diseases to plants and animals even to human beings such as tuberculosis and leprosy on one side and they also convert milk into curd. In last couple of decades, we have identified bacteria as miners. These diminutive diggers have become assets to the mining industry eliminating traditional offensive methods which use explosives, toxic chemicals, and high temperatures (Science, Vol

Data Analytics Life Cycle in Big Data

1. Discovery : Goal: Understand the problem and define objectives. Identify business challenges. Determine project scope and potential value. Assess available resources (data, tools, skills). Understand data sources and feasibility. Example: A retail company wants to improve sales forecasting using big data analytics.2. Data Preparation: Goal: Collect, clean, and organize the data. Gather data from various sources (structured, semi-structured, unstructured).

Regulation of enzyme activity Ans.Any substance that reduces the velocity of an enzyme catalysed reaction can be called an inhibitor. The inhibition of enzyme activity is one of the major regulatory mechanisms of the cell. It is of the following types (a)Competitive inhibition. Here, organic molecules compete with the substrate for binding at the active site of the enzyme. Such inhibitors show a close resemblance to the substrate of the enzyme. Instead of the enzyme-substrate complex, enzyme-inhibitor

A contraposiçao entre as concepçoes ontologica e funcional da culpa penal reflete diferentes formas de compreender o juizo de censura e a sua relaçao c/ os fins da pena. A concepçao ontologica funda-se n1a ideia de culpa da vontade, baseada na autonomia etica da pessoa e no livre-arbitrio, 2º a kal a culpabilidade exprime a censura pelo uso da liberdade no sentido contrario ao Direito. Em contrapartida, a concepçao funcional encara a culpa n1a logica instr1ental (meio-fim), orientada por