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Q.5) Biotransformation (Drug Metabolism) 

Biotransformation is the process by which a drug is chemically altered in the body. It changes active drugs into less active or inactive compounds (to be excreted) or transforms inactive "prodrugs" into active forms.

Phase I Reactions (Non-Synthetic) This phase alters the drug's chemical structure by adding or exposing a functional group 

• Reactions: Oxidation (adding oxygen or removing hydrogen, often via Cytochrome P450 enzymes), Reduction, and Hydrolysis.

GIT

Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) drug absorption relies on several physiological mechanisms. Key factors like molecular size, lipid solubility, gastrointestinal pH, and gastric emptying time heavily influence how quickly and completely a medication enters the systemic circulation.

1) Mechanisms of Drug Transport Through the GIT 

Drugs traverse the gastrointestinal membrane primarily through the following pathways: 

• Passive Diffusion: The most common mechanism. Drugs move naturally from a region

Define Drug Disposition.

Disposition is defined as the processes that tend to lower the plasma concentration of drug; sum of metabolism and excretion.

Define Multi dose.

Multiple dose administration refers to the administration of successive dosage of drug in which the drug is administered frequently with constant dose interval.

What are the testing of kidney function?

The kidney function tests include approximately 11 tests to assess the complete functioning of the kidney. Tests include blood urea,

Raw Image File: A RAW file is an unprocessed image format typically produced by higher-end digital cameras. It is proprietary, meaning not all image viewers can open it, but it preserves the most complete data captured by the camera sensor. demosaicing: the process of converting raw picture data captured by a camera sensor into a standard, viewable image format. Additional Data EXIF file: stores metadata about a photo (camera make, model, and serial #) through modifying beginning and of GPEF or

CVP

CM per unit = Selling Price − Variable Cost per unit

CM Ratio = (Selling Price − Variable Cost) ÷ Selling Price × 100

BEU = Fixed Expenses ÷ CM per unit

BES = Fixed Expenses ÷ CM Ratio

AU = Target Profit ÷ CM per unit

TU = BEU + AU

Total Sales = TU × Selling Price

Margin of Safety = Actual Sales − BES

NPV

NPV = Σ (Cn × PV Factor) − Initial Investment

Full form: NPV = [C1/(1+r)¹ + C2/(1+r)² + ... + Cn/(1+r)ⁿ] − Initial Investment

NPV > 0 → ACCEPT | NPV < 0 → REJECT

Herb and Herbal Medicine Product 

• Herb: Any whole or part of a plant (such as leaves, roots, or flowers) used for therapeutic, flavoring, or fragrant purposes. 

• Herbal Medicinal Product: Finished, labeled products that contain one or more herbs or their extracts as active ingredients, formulated to prevent, relieve, or treat diseases.

Define IPR and Patent 

• IPR (Intellectual Property Rights): Legal rights granted to creators and inventors to protect their original creations, preventing